Introduction: 

War—whether experienced directly or indirectly—has profound impacts on the human psyche. According to Litz et al. (2009), repeated exposure to violence may disrupt core moral frameworks and destabilize empathic functions. In such contexts, one psychological outcome that may emerge in clients is sadistic behavior, which can appear as affective detachment or pleasure in witnessing others' suffering. This paper conceptualizes sadism as a psychoanalytic defense in war survivors and offers therapeutic strategies for clinicians.

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Sadism in Psychoanalytic Theory:

Freud (1905/1953) originally described sadism as a component of sexual development involving pleasure in domination. Melanie Klein (1946) expanded the understanding of sadism as a psychological defense mechanism against annihilation anxiety. Kernberg (1984) later posited that while sadistic traits may appear in pathological personality structures, they can also emerge temporarily in extreme relational or existential stress, such as wartime trauma.

 

Breakdown of Empathy During War:

Research in trauma studies suggests that empathic capacity is compromised during sustained exposure to war. Litz et al. (2009) introduced the term “moral injury” to describe the erosion of ethical and emotional integrity in war-exposed individuals. This loss can lead to normalization of cruelty and dehumanization of others, which sets the stage for defensive sadism.

Ferenczi (1933) described “identification with the aggressor” as a survival strategy in trauma, wherein the victim unconsciously adopts the traits of their persecutor to protect the ego from total collapse. This same mechanism can be seen in post-war clients who exhibit emotional detachment and derive symbolic satisfaction from the pain of others.

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Clinical Manifestations:

In therapeutic settings, clinicians may hear clients speak of violence with pride, express no remorse over deaths, or dismiss suffering with sarcasm. These reactions, while distressing, often indicate defensive numbing rather than psychopathy. Viewing these dynamics through the lens of projection, splitting, and defensive identification allows for compassionate engagement without moralistic judgment.

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Therapeutic Response:

The psychotherapist must remain vigilant in recognizing and processing their own countertransference (Safran & Muran, 2000). Feelings of repulsion or fear must be metabolized so the therapist can maintain empathic attunement. Inquiries such as “What was it like for you to see that?” or “Was there part of you that felt strong—another that felt disturbed?” support the client’s integration of conflicting affects and thoughts.
The goal is not to condemn but to restore complexity and mentalization. As Bateman and Fonagy (2019) argue, mentalization-based treatment facilitates clients’ reflective functioning and reduces reliance on primitive defenses.

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Conclusion:

Sadism in the aftermath of war should not be hastily pathologized. Instead, it should be approached as a signal of psychic disorganization and an effort toward self-preservation. By fostering a therapeutic alliance grounded in containment and reflective space, psychotherapists can support clients in regaining relational depth and moral agency.

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References:

Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (2019). Mentalization-Based Treatment for Personality Disorders. Oxford University Press.
Ferenczi, S. (1933). Confusion of Tongues Between the Adults and the Child.
Freud, S. (1905/1953). Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. Standard Edition, Vol. 7.
Kernberg, O. (1984). Severe Personality Disorders: Psychotherapeutic Strategies. Yale University Press.
Klein, M. (1946). Notes on Some Schizoid Mechanisms. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 27, 99–110.
Litz, B. T., Stein, N., Delaney, E., Lebowitz, L., Nash, W. P., Silva, C., & Maguen, S. (2009). Moral injury and moral repair in war veterans: A preliminary model and intervention strategy. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(8), 695–706.
Safran, J. D., & Muran, J. C. (2000). Negotiating the Therapeutic Alliance: A Relational Treatment Guide. Guilford Press.